1. How do sex, gender roles expectations and sexuality combine to be problematic
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Question
1. How do sex, gender roles expectations and sexuality combine to be problematic for all female athletes’? (Read the following lecture and answer the question in at least 250 words). You can use 1-2 quotes from the lecture in your answer.
Homophobia and Women’s Sport
Unfortunately, we cannot cover the subject of women in sport adequately without discussing the issue of homophobia. Homophobia is a subject that concerns many women who participate in sport, making it one more factor which impacts women’s full participation in sport.
ÊFor this lecture, I am going to ask you to put your personal feelings about homosexuality aside. Whether you think it is in someone’s ‘nature’ (they were born that way) or their environment (the people around them were homosexual/lesbian) or a ‘choice’; I want you to develop an academic curiosity about the topic and think about….Why is homophobia such a prevalent issue for female athletes? Where does it come from? Does it keep lesbians and/or straight women away from sport? Do male athletes have to deal with the issue of homophobia? Why, why not?
Another note before we even get started: I know that many of you might be thinking…why are we talking about sexuality in a class on sport? Or, you might be thinking…’no one cares about ‘homosexual stuff’ anymore, it’s cool with me, we have homosexual marriage now, some of my friends and family are homosexual’. But this is not the case everywhere or for everyone, as we will see; especially, in the arena of sport. Several of your female classmates, who are athletes, say they face or have faced this at some time during their sporting career.
During the 2014 Olympics held in Sochi, Russian; we learned that Russian put an anti-homosexual policy in place. The president of Russia, Vladimir Putin, approved legislation during the Olympic Games that doled out two-week jail sentences for any visitor to the country suspected of being homosexual or sharing this information with others. The former and current IOC presidents sided with Putin: “warning athletes to forgo any protest.” (http://www.thenation.com/article/lgbt-movement-takes-aim-sochi/1-22-2014)
There is also a current case involving successful female coach with 5 National Titles, losing her jobs, and female athletes losing their scholarships for being homosexual! So, no, homosexuality is not accepted, by everyone, yet!
So, let’s take a look and see what’s going on…
Generally speaking, the sexual climate in the US over the last couple of decades has become increasingly liberalized; lesbians now have a higher, even voguish, profile. Homosexuals and lesbians are visible characters on television and in movies. There are homosexual and lesbian magazines, books, teams, festivals, and clubs. And, the federal government legalized same-sex marriage in 2015.
It has been shown that lesbians and homosexuals exist in every part of our society, in every walk of life; therefore, it should be not surprising to learn that there may be members of women’s athletics teams, who are lesbian.
ÊHowever, even in this culture of greater acceptance of homosexuality, the traditional association of physical strength, power and athleticism with masculinity causes many people to question the sexuality of women athletes. Women in sport find that they are constantly battling a stereotype or at least have to contend with concerns about homophobia.
In short, for some female athletes, successfully combining homosexual identity with an athletic identity continues to remain a challenging process.
I. Definition of terms:
A. Homophobia
Defined: Homophobia is a generalized fear or intolerance of those whose sexual orientation is characterized by lasting attraction and romantic love exclusively for others of the same sex.
Homophobia can go beyond how one feels about homosexuals and lesbians into harmful behaviors such as prejudice, discrimination, harassment, and violence toward those identified or believed to be homosexual or bisexual.
B. Heteronormal
Defined: the idea that a heterosexual orientation is ‘normal’ or the norm for sexuality
When heterosexuality is designated as the norm, any other sexual orientation becomes ‘abnormal’.
C. Heterosexism
Defined: discrimination or prejudice by heterosexuals against homosexuals based on the assumption that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation. www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary
In other words, heterosexism would not exist without heteronormativity.
D. Heterosexual Matrix-developed by Judith Butler (2006), comprised to 2 components:
i) sex, gender, and sexuality are considered binary constructs; i.e., people are either:
-male or female
-feminine or masculine
-heterosexual or homosexual
ii) “the compulsory order of the tripartite (3-part) system of sex, gender, and sexuality” (Waldron, p. 335.)
It is this ‘compulsory order’ that leads to the normalization of the idea that:
“biological sex, naturally leads to people performing the corresponding gender as well as being attracted to those of the opposite sex. For example, those born biologically female will innately and permanently be feminine and heterosexual (i.e., woman-feminine-heterosexual)”. [ibid]
As a result, female athletes who exhibit strength or skills which are typically associated with masculinity, their sex is no longer in agreement with traditional gender norms. Then, according to the Heterosexual Matrix, these women find themselves subjected assumptions about their sexuality.
So, unfortunately, female athletes still have the onus of proving their ‘normal’ femininity or else hear the long-standing innuendos about being masculine and abnormal.
1. Where does this stereotypical thinking about athletes come from?
a. One more term: Stereotype
Defined: a set of inaccurate, simplistic generalizations about a group that allows others to categorize them and treat them accordingly Collins English Dictionary -10th Edition 2009
A stereotype is taking a specific status and applying it broadly to a group. We KNOW that no one (1) generalization and/or statement holds true of all members of any group—good or bad, right?
Are all blondes dumb? No!
Do all women like cooking? No!
Do all men love sports? No!
So, are all female athletes lesbians? No!
On the flip side, are all male athletes heterosexual? No!
There are a number of former (and current) male professional athletes who have declared their homosexuality. Do homosexual male athletes surprise us more than lesbian athletes? Why?
Why do we assume male athletes aren’t homosexual? Where does sexuality fit into the picture, anyway?
2. Norms and sport
a) Men
Our discussion of gender norms showed us that the attributes which are necessary to succeed in sport tend to be associated with masculinity; for instance, traits necessary to be an athlete—strength, power and muscular development—are strongly associated with masculinity.
Another key trait of masculinity is that of ‘attraction to women’, or heterosexuality.
Norms would dictate that for male athletes:
A man who excels at professional sports is strong, powerful muscular, and has relationship with women; he is considered ‘masculine’. His sex agrees with his gender as well as his sexuality. For this man, his work, his body, and his sexuality are all in alignment with norms of traditional masculinity.
b) Women
The equation for women in sport goes a little differently. It is the assumed relationship between masculinity and athletic ability is precisely what changes the equation for women. The traditional norms for sex, gender and sexuality for female athletes are not in alignment. Her sex and gender, in traditional terms, disagree. What? Let me explain…
Women who participate in sport take on the same attributes of strength, power and muscles and then are considered ‘abnormal’ or ‘unfeminine’ which means their gender is considered ‘masculine’ too. As a result, their sexuality comes into question. They are seen as potentially becoming like heterosexual male athletes and possibly developing an attraction to women.
“The underlying logic holds that if sports are masculine, then sport might appeal to—
or even produce—women with same-sex attractions.” (O’Reilly and Cahn, p. 215)
Ê People also worry because women’s sports, especially team sports, are NOT activities that train women for their traditional ‘role’ as wives and mothers. In truth, female athletes are being trained, like all athletes, to be aggressive, competitive, independent, strong and powerful.
However, just as we saw with Gender Ideologies (Lecture 3), we KNOW that these stereotypes are not true. The problem is that a female athlete’s “rejection of conventional femininity make her the focus for enduring fears that women in sport transgress [defy] gender lines and disrupt the social order.” And, gender order? (Cahn 1994, 265)
Norms would dictate that for women athletes:
For the women who exhibit strength or skills normally associated with men, their sex no longer agrees with traditional gender norms and, as a result, find themselves subjected assumptions about their sexuality, merely on the basis of their interests or their skills.
In addition, female athletes still have the onus of proving their normal femininity or else hear the long-standing innuendos about being masculine and abnormal.
Please note: the majority of women participating in sports are not lesbians and do not express their orientation as homosexual. But they must deal with these assumptions, so we are trying to understand where they come from .
(1) Female apologetic
In order to counter accusations of masculinity, many female athletes employ something called the ‘female apologetic’. This is ‘a coping strategy that allows a woman to compensate for the perceived masculinizing effect of participating in sports by exaggerating her femininity’ (Malcolm 2003).
They might do various things such as wearing hair ribbons or tennis dresses, and stating that, rather than athletic ability, it was the men in their lives or luck that led them to win. However, these tactics only serve to diminish the power and assertiveness of these women. Have you done this or seen this?
(2) Silence
The lesbian community in sport often exists in silence. Silence is significant because what is not heard is often more important than what is said. By maintaining silence and an
“absent presence” of lesbians means the discourse (discussion) of compulsory heterosexuality is maintained.” (Kauer 2009, p. 316).
In this complicit silence, administrators, coaches, and even athletes can pretend that there are no lesbians on their team. However, this leaves the lesbian athletes with a sense of ‘otherness’, being an outsider. It also serves to perpetuate a fear of the lesbian presence and make the lesbian presence invisible. (It’s Complicated; Negotiations and Complexity of Lesbian in Sport. Waldron, J.J. Sex Roles (2016)
III. The ‘L’ word: Social Control
The silence surrounding lesbian athletes allows women, all women, to be controlled by the label of ‘lesbian’. Lesbian can be used to define the boundaries of acceptable female behavior within our traditionally patriarchal culture. (Gender and Sport: A Reader, 2001) In other words, if you don’t display ‘appropriate’ feminine behavior, you risk being ostracized, cast out, and possibly even labeled as ‘lesbian’.
ÊSocial Control works against men as well. You might be more familiar with the idea of boys/men calling each other ‘fag’ when challenging or shaming another boy/man’s behavior. Here is an example of one guy ‘controlling’ his friend’s behavior that I witnessed.
ÊRecently, I took the bus up to campus. When everyone was getting off, I saw one guy getting frustrated with his friend for not moving fast enough to get off the bus. So he yelled at him, ‘Hurry up, faggot!’
Did I miss something; is it somehow manlier to get off the bus fast? I don’t know. But you can bet the friend will move a lot faster from now on or risk being called a fag in front of a whole bus full of people.
1. Lesbian
The term ‘lesbian’ is also used as a form of social control. As mentioned, it can be used against a woman who goes too far outside the social norms, which just might be that she likes sport, right?
Note: As we discussed in the lecture on Title IX, some men are still resistant to women ‘invading’ their space by entering sport. There are some men who, consciously or unconsciously, wish to limit women’s access to sport and its resultant privileges and access to power and resources.
ÊOne way to effectively limit women’s participation in sport is by stigmatizing women who do participate by suggesting that they are lesbians.
a. Social Control at work
The myth that ‘all female athletes are lesbians’ has been used for nearly a century to exclude and discourage women from playing sports.
It can work this way…
-One coach suggests to a recruit that the coach of another team, which the recruit is thinking of playing for, is a lesbian. The recruit might shy away from that coach/team, so that people won’t think that the recruit is a lesbian, whether she is or she is not.
-A candidate for a coaching job is asked whether she is single or married, which is illegal. If she is single, she is assumed to be lesbian and, therefore, may not be considered for employment and/or offered the job.
-Parents of a prospective student/athlete might deter their daughter from choosing a particular school because someone suggests there are lesbians at that school or on the team.
b. An example of Social Control – Women’s Basketball
The following situation took place a few years ago, involving a former women’s basketball head coach at Penn State, Rene Portland. Portland was quite outspoken in her objections to lesbian players and homosexuality, including declaring her team - lesbian free - and outing other coaches who might be lesbian.
Watch the following video (3:26) Required.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5eaoz2jOrxI
Ironically, Portland’s views reinforced the idea that 1) female athletes are homosexual, and 2) that homosexuality is a bad thing, or something to be avoided, rather than accepted. Can you see that?
Eventually, Portland was sued for making insinuations about women on her team. In spite of her well-known beliefs, the University employed her for 27 years! After 27 years, Coach Portland was finally dismissed from PSU. Jim Buzinski of Outsports responded…
“If Penn State women’s basketball Coach Rene Portland had said she did not want Jewish or black players on her team, she would have been fired within a week” Not 27 years later…
IV. Consequences of homophobia for all women
Homophobia and the myth of the lesbian athlete does not just impact lesbians; it impacts heterosexual female athletes as well.
Homophobia is experienced by all women as a powerful cultural force, which:
-can discourage ALL girls and women from playing sports or making sports an important part of their lives
-might pressure ALL women to conform to traditional gender roles and
-silences and makes invisible the lesbians who manage, coach and play sports
All the energy spent covering up or silencing or disregarding their true feelings could be better spent on their sport or on other areas of their lives. In Out for a Change, Helen Carroll, former Athletic Director at Mills College and NCLR Sport Project Director, wrote that:
“It is in the interests of heterosexual women to stand with their lesbian […] teammates and colleagues to challenge anti-lesbian discrimination. In doing so, they also free themselves to achieve their potential as athletes, coaches, and women in the world without the tyranny of compulsory femininity, heterosexuality and fear of being called a lesbian.” (p. 127.)
V. Signs of progress…
Note: when I started teaching this course, I struggled with trying to present any signs of progress for homosexuals and lesbians in sport. However, I am pleased to report that just in the last few years there has been dramatic progress and numerous inroads made in the world of sport for/by lesbian and homosexual athletes.
Here is list of areas in which we are seeing progress or notable events in the homosexual sporting culture:
1. ‘Out’ coaches (‘out’ meaning open about their sexuality/homosexuality)
We have had a very small measure of progress here. According to Outsports.com, there are 11 college coaches who have come out, male or female, but mostly in ‘minor’ sports. Two female basketball coaches have been allowed to come out successfully (meaning they are able to keep their jobs).
Two other female coaches have ‘come out’ but they are coaches in the WNBA for which a lesbian head coach would be less of an issue. Do you think an NBA coach would be safe to come out as homosexual?
2. Homosexual Games
Former Olympian, Dr. Tom Waddell, helped to found the Homosexual Games in 1982. The Games provide an opportunity for lesbians and homosexual athletes and anyone who ‘homosexual-friendly’.
The Homosexual Games started in San Francisco in 1982 with 1350 participants from 12 countries. The Games continue to be held every four every in different cities/countries. The 2014 Games hosted over 11,000 athletes from 35 countries, surpassing the number of athletes in the Olympics. (http://www.gg9cle.com/homosexual-games/faqs/)
“The Games are about acceptance,
sport is a conduit to discussion and cultural assimilation“. (Waddell)
Waddell wanted the Homosexual Games to be fundamentally different from the aggressive competitive ideology and divisive conventions of mainstream sport. Inclusiveness, involvement and experience replace exclusiveness, elitism, and achievement-orientation of orthodox events of the traditional Olympic formula. Thousands of athletes attend the Homosexual Games, including former college and Olympic champions.
But…
Do the Homosexual Games make homosexual and lesbian athletes more visible or do they marginalize them-
left to compete in their own ‘Games’ without the visibility of mainstream sport media?
Is it a symbol of strength or self-imposed segregation?
3. More ‘out’ athletes - male and female
Homosexuals and lesbian athletes are ‘coming’ out in greater numbers. In 2014, the WNBA has formally acknowledged its lesbian fan base which it avoided doing for years. Nike is celebrating the LGBT community by creating their #BeTrue brand and donating profits to a LGBT sport coalition. Sport media guides are starting to acknowledge ‘partners’ of coaches. In tennis, players’ boxes (where friends and family sit during an event) allow and even mention homosexual and lesbian partners.
In 2014, sexual orientation was added to the non-discrimination policies for some professional teams and the NCAA. Progress has also been made by the inclusion of programs to develop respectful and inclusive environments for LGBT athletes and their ‘allies’. [An ‘ally’ is typically a heterosexual person who supports equality and the rights of the LGBT community.]
The London Olympics became the first Olympics in history to make a commitment to being homosexual-friendly. Estimates suggested that there were 23 homosexual and lesbian athletes participating in the 2012 Olympics. And, reportedly, 53 homosexual, bi- or trans-sexual athletes competed in the 2016 Olympics.
I also checked ‘OutSports: The (self-proclaimed) galactic leader in homosexual sports”, a well-respected source for news and discussions on issues facing lesbian and homosexual athletes and fans; I saw many athletes who have come out or are coming out that there were too many to list. This is a change! http://www.outsports.com You will see HS and college baseball players, rowers, boxers, rugby players, hockey players, swimmers but you will notice a lack of professional athletes.
In the professional sports, we have seen progress, although it has been a bit slower. We saw an ‘out’ football player, Michael Sam, get drafted by the NFL. Also, Robbie Rogers, a MLS soccer player came out last year. And, in the past 3 years, 2 active professional basketball players-1 female and 1 male-confirmed that they are homosexual: Jason Collins-former Stanford All-American and 13-year NBA player, was the first active team sport athlete to come out in 2013; and, Brittany Griner- NCAA champion and #1 selection in the 2013 WNBA draft. Since 2013, several more WNBA players have declared their homosexuality, meaning the environment is becoming safer for homosexual women in basketball.
Professional tennis players Billie Jean King and Martina Navratilova suffered the wrath of the country when they were ‘outed’ in the 80s and 90s, respectively. However, there has been such as shift in culture on this issue that Navratilova has been featured in TV commercial and does broadcasting; while King received a Presidential Medal of Freedom – the highest civilian honor - from President Barack Obama for her work advocating for the rights of women and the LGBT community.
"This is a chance for me – and for the United States of America – to say thank you to some of the finest citizens of this country and of all countries". President Obama. (Homosexual, S. (August 12, 2009) The New York Times)
4. Leagues
After 19 years into its 21 year WNBA history finally began to acknowledge its lesbian fan base. Teams have hosted Pride nights, encouraged LGBT fans and often fly a rainbow flag. According to [former] WNBA president Laurel Richie:
"The LGBT community has been with us since our inception. […]This is really about bringing it all together." (Wolff, A. "No Passing Fancy." Sports Illustrated 122.26 (2015): 66.)
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Epilogue
How to be ally for a LGBT person in your life
If you are interested in how to support lesbian and homosexual athletes and/or any LGBT person, here is some information.
http://www.hrc.org/blog/how-to-be-an-lgbt-ally
#3 is particularly impactful…
“Just as it takes courage for LGBT people to be open and honest about who they are, it also takes courage to support your LGBT friends or loved ones.”
How do sex, gender roles expectations and sexuality combine to be problematic for all female athletes’?
Explanation / Answer
Women who participate in sport take on the same attributes of strength, power and muscles and then are considered ‘abnormal’ or ‘unfeminine’ which means their gender is considered ‘masculine’ too. As a result, their sexuality comes into question. They are seen as potentially becoming like heterosexual male athletes and possibly developing an attraction to women.
People also worry because women’s sports, especially team sports, are NOT activities that train women for their traditional ‘role’ as wives and mothers. In truth, female athletes are being trained, like all athletes, to be aggressive, competitive, independent, strong and powerful.
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