Proofreading and correct grammar mistakes Introduction Radiation was first disco
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Proofreading and correct grammar mistakes
Introduction
Radiation was first discovered by a German physicist, Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895 [1]. His discovery led to a lot of research on radiation. Radiation was always with us, from the beginning of the universe the very fabric of our planet is radioactive [1]. Earth gets bombarded from many extraterrestrial sources of radiation and the radiation from these sources effect the earth’s atmosphere. Thus life on earth always have absorbed some amount of radiation. As a matter of fact, it is hard to imagine what would life look like without radiation. We cannot see, taste or feel radiation. The only way to detect radiation is by using detectors. There are three main sources of radiation that are present in our environment; these sources include early Uses of radioactive material, terrestrial sources of radiation and human made sources of radiation [2]. Terrestrial source of radiation can further be divided into primordial and cosmogonic radiation. Effects of cosmic radiation on earth’s atmosphere will be discussed and how climate change will increase cosmic radiation absorbed will be concluded.
There are two main sources of cosmic radiation, galactic and solar cosmic radiation. Galactic cosmic rays originate from outside the solar system form stellar flares and they are high energy. Solar cosmic radiation originates from around the sun. Both sources mainly consist of protons, helium and some heavy ions. Cosmic radiation upon entering the earth’s atmosphere interacts with the atoms present in the atmosphere and the electromagnetic field that surround the earth. Since solar radiation is low energy particle they are less efficient in penetrating earth’s magnetic field [1]. One of the main defense against this continues bombardment of radiation from space is the earth’s atmosphere. The deterioration of the climate can significantly affect the amount of radiation that is absorbed by the earth. Climate change impact on the cosmic radiation will be explored. The main purpose of this paper is to focus on the role clouds play in protecting the earth from cosmic radiation and effect of climate change have on cloud formation.
Radiation
Radioactivity is one of the main property of atom, it is the energy that is emitted from the atom; either from the nucleus or the electronic shells and travel though space until it is absorbed. The amount of radiation (energy) that is released from the atom depends on where the energy originates within the atom. There are two main categories in which radiation can be divided, ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radiation include lases, radio frequencies, infrared visible light and ultraviolent area of the electromagnetic spectrum. Non ionizing radiation cannot ionize the material it gets absorbed in. The frequency of the waves of this type of radiation is very low, however it does increase the temperature of the material it interacts with these waves are defined as extremely low frequency (ELF) waves. The increased temperature depends on the time, the exposure rate and the concentration of the radiation. [3] Ionizing radiation is high energy radiation it contains enough energy to remove the electron from orbit which creates an imbalanced atom. Ionizing radiation has the ability to penetrate through the matter and damage the atoms specially in cells of living organisms. Ionizing radiation is very difficult to avoid. There are four main types of ionizing radiation: alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma radiation, X-rays, and neutron radiation. The penetration power of ionizing radiation is dependent on the energy it carries. The more defused the ionization it causes the more penetration it has, so localizing ionizing radiation lessens is penetration ability. Alpha radiation consists of two protons and two neutrons and has the least penetrating power, about 10 cm of air or 0.01 mm of lead. Beta radiation is fast moving electrons from the nucleus of an atom and can penetrate deeply about 1m in air or 0.1 mm in lead. Gamma radiation is released immediately after an alpha of gamma particle is released and have a very high penetrating ability about 1 km in air and 10 cm in lead.
Figure 1: penetrating ability of ionizing radiation through different material. [4]
X-rays are very similar to gamma but they originate from the electron shell of an atom and has less penetrating ability. Neutrons are emitted from the nucleus during nuclear reaction, since they originate from the nucleus which is under very high electromagnetic force they have high energy and high penetrability. [4]
Cosmic radiation
Cosmic radiation is atomic fragments that bombards the earth from outside of our solar system they originate during Steller activities and super nova. They travel at the speed of light and effect the electronic equipment in our satellites [5]. About 50 percent of the cosmic radiation consists of protons, 25 percent alpha particles, around 13 percent consists of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, 1 percent electrons and only 0.1 percent gamma rays. Cosmic radiation’s energy depends on their composition; two main sources of cosmic radiation are galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar cosmic rays (SCR). Galactic cosmic rays are primarily consisting of 85 percent hydrogen (protons), 14 percentage helium and about 1 percentage high energy highly charged heavy ions. [6] the abundance of GCR goes down as their atomic number increases, they peak around iron in periodic table and travel isotopically.
Figure 3: galactic cosmic rays Differential fluence vs their kinetic energy [6]
The sun is one of the main source of cosmic radiation which releases a constant flux of low energy particle called solar wind, this solar wind largely consists of protons. The sun has solar cycles usually ranging between 11 and 8 years and each cycle consists of solar maximum and solar minimum. During solar maximum solar activities increase and large amount of radiation gets released from the sun which is called coronal mass ejections CMEs. The CMEs last for several day and consists of protons and other heavy particles and their energies can be from several hundred MeV/amu to GeV/amu [7]. These solar flares are dangerous and can damage high orbital satellites. These particles are so energetic that they deform the earth’s magnetic field and even disrupt communications. Most of the cosmic rays do not reach the earth’s atmosphere many of the radiation is t blocked and deflected by earth’s magnetic field as shown in the figure [1], Low altitude is shielded from the solar and cosmic rays.
Figure 4: total energy required to penetrate earth’s magnetosphere and the layers of magnetic field around the globe [8]
The magnetic shield filters the particle with less than the energy to penetrate the earth’s atmosphere. particle that overcome the magnetic field enters the earth’s atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere is made up of 78 percent of nitrogen and 21 percent of oxygen, so these particle interacts with nitrogen and oxygen atoms to create secondary particle [1]. The energy of these particle is greatly reduced till they reach the surface of the earth. The particles in the atmosphere traps the solar radiation temporally and then scatter same energy in all direction. Half of the scattered energy gets release back in the space. The scattered wavelength depends on the scattering particles for example haze and smog have water droplets and scatter large wavelength. Air has nitrogen and oxygen they scatter short wavelength [1].
Climate change effects on atmosphere and cloud forming
In 1998 Henrik svensmark proposed the theory that GCRs and SCRs could be responsible for the global temperature. His theory stated that solar magnetic field deflect GRCs that can seed clouds on earth and molecules of water can be ionized by the high energy cosmic say that then starts to form clouds [9]. Since these clouds play a significant role in reflecting back solar radiation, there might be a link between climate change and solar radiation. According to proposed theory Cloud formation did not effect in the middle or higher atmosphere but only in the lower atmosphere. High atmosphere clouds trap heat and low level clouds reflect heat. Cloud affect the radiation by their 3 dimensional geometry and the size, amount and nature of the hydrometeors present in them. If less GCRs are penetrating the earth’s atmosphere, then less cloud will form and less UV radiation would reflect back to the atmosphere which can increase the earth’s temperature. For this theory to be true there should be an increase in solar magnetic field over the years but the research showed that from 1965 to 2010 the solar magnetic field stayed relatively the same [10]. The second test was conducted to see if the GCR flux decrease in long term, since they help form the lower atmosphere clouds. The data gathered from the university of national centers for environmental information showed there was no significant change since 1970 to 2005. [10]
Figure 5: left: Reconstructed cosmic radiation (solid line before 1952) and directly observed cosmic radiation (solid line after 1952) compared to global temperature (dotted line), right: Record high cosmic ray flux in 2009 and a graph depicting the annual average GCR counts per minute (blue-note the numbers decreasing on the left vertical axis since lower GCRs should mean higher temperatures) vs. annual average global surface temperature (red-right vertical axis) [10]
The third research was conducted was to look if GCRs successfully seed low atmosphere clouds. This cannot be tested directly so scientist looked at atomic bombs test data since fission reaction release large quantity of charged particles. There was no evidence that suggested that there was a significant increase in cloud formation. About 30 percent of the radiation is reflected back to space by clouds. The increase in greenhouse gases are making less clouds and increase in CO2 level and other greenhouse gases absorb solar radiation and accelerate the global warming effect. Next the effect of Carbon dioxide on the cloud formation was tested. The greenhouse can affect the cloud formation and their radiative feedback.
The next experiment was conducted with two climate models one with cloud feedback and other without it. Both models were studied for Carbon dioxide sensitivity and Carbon dioxide induced cloud formation [11]. The Carbon dioxide induce model showed reduction of clouds in upper troposphere and increase in the amount of cloud around troposphere, but the increase in CO2 in the atmosphere showed decrease in lower troposphere clouds. It was due to the fact that saturated air normally spreads horizontally. The heating due to moist convection raises in the middle and lower altitudes. This is in response to the increase in Carbon dioxide, the low moist static stability moves to higher level which causes an upward shift in the clouds [11]. it was found that the relationship between the radiation and cloud cover is positive feedback. The Carbon dioxide induced model showed increase in the mean global temperature. The experiment concluded that reflected radiation is reduced due the increase in top layer of the clouds which absorb more heat, effectively increases the earth’s temperature. The reduction of lower layer of cloud reduce the reflective radiation even more both effects increases the earth’s temperature.
Schemes that predict cloudiness as a function of humidity showed positive displacement at higher atmosphere. The cloud cover in response to greenhouse gases are also showing positive feedback [11] which means that the increase in greenhouse gasses actually decrease the lower atmosphere clouds formation.
Table 1 properties of cloud cover used in the study, thin cloud occupies finite deference level and thick cloud occupies more than one contiguous level. Visible and UV indicate solar radiation and infrared indicate part of solar spectrum [11]
Figure 6: latitude and time distribution of total amount of cloud formation (a) computed simulation and (b) actual observed distribution [11]
This same research was latter repeated on more sophisticated simulation in 1999 by Wu and Moncrieff and in 2000 by Tompkins and Emanuel and showed the same results that greenhouse gases decrease cloud formation significantly. The extent of global warming effect on cloud cover and radiation feedback still need more research. So far it can be concluded that that global warming does affect the cloud formation but to what extent and how much, still need more research and what are the long term effect of this still need better understanding.
Conclusion
In conclusion the radiation from outside the solar system and nearby stars gets redirected and absorbed by the earth’s magnetic field and the atmosphere. The earth atmosphere absorbs high energy radiation and converts them in to secondary particle with less energy. The clouds play an important role in the reflection and absorption of the cosmic radiation. The top layer of the clouds absorbs and trap heat from solar radiation and lower level clouds reflect the heat. the temperature of the earth gets significantly affected by the formation of lower level clouds. Research suggest that solar radiation does not play significant role in formation of the clouds. But the amount of radiation absorbed by earth does get effected by clouds. Recent data suggest that global warming might be responsible for the positive feedback of cloud formation in lower atmosphere. That means that less radiation reflective clouds are formed and less radiation gets reflected back to the space. More study and research must be conducted on this phenomenon. increase amount of solar radiation absorbed by the earth can have significant adverse effects on the biological organism, which include humans, animals and food source. Cosmic radiation played a huge factor on the evolution of this planet and living organisms but it is yet to be determined the how global warming and increase solar radiation will affect the plant in the future.
Explanation / Answer
After correction folowing is the content :
Radiation was first discovered by a German physicist, Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895 [1]. His discovery led to a lot of research on radiation. Radiation has been always with us, from the beginning of the universe the very fabric of our planet is radioactive [1]. The earth gets bombarded from many extraterrestrial sources of radiation and the radiation from these sources affects the earth’s atmosphere. Thus life on earth always have absorbed some amount of radiation. As a matter of fact, it is hard to imagine what would life look like without radiation. We cannot see, taste or feel the radiation. The only way to detect radiation is by using detectors. There are three main sources of radiation that are present in our environment; these sources include early Uses of radioactive material, terrestrial sources of radiation and human made sources of radiation [2]. Terrestrial sources of radiation can further be divided into primordial and carcinogenic radiation. The effects of cosmic radiation on earth’s atmosphere will be discussed and how climate change will increase cosmic radiation absorbed will be concluded.
There are two main sources of cosmic radiation, galactic and solar cosmic radiation. Galactic cosmic rays originate from outside the solar system form stellar flares and they are high energy. Solar cosmic radiation originates from around the sun. Both sources, mainly consist of protons, helium and some heavy ions. Cosmic radiation upon entering the earth’s atmosphere interacts with the atoms present in the atmosphere and the electromagnetic field that surround the earth. Since solar radiation is low energy particle they are less efficient at penetrating earth’s magnetic field [1]. One of the main defense against this continues bombardment of radiation from space is the earth’s atmosphere. The deterioration of the climate can significantly affect the amount of radiation that is absorbed by the earth. Climate change impact of the cosmic radiation will be explored. The main purpose of this paper is to focus on the role clouds play in protecting the earth from cosmic radiation and the effect of climate change have on cloud formation.
Radioactivity is one of the main properties of atoms, it is the energy that is emitted from the atom; either from the nucleus or the electronic shells and travel through space until it is absorbed. The amount of radiation (energy) that is released from the atom depends on where the energy originates within the atom. There are two main categories in which radiation can be divided, ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radiation include leases, radio frequencies, infrared, visible light and ultraviolet area of the electromagnetic spectrum. Non ionizing radiation cannot ionize the material it gets absorbed in. The frequency of the waves of this type of radiation is very low, however it does increase the temperature of the material it interacts with these waves are defined as extremely low frequency (ELF) waves. The increased temperature depends on the time, the exposure rate and the concentration of the radiation. [3] Ionizing radiation is high energy radiation it contains enough energy to remove the electron from the orbit which creates an imbalanced atom. Ionizing radiation has the ability to penetrate through the matter and damage the atoms specially in the cells of of living organisms.Ionizing radiation is very difficult to avoid. There are four main types of ionizing radiation: alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma radiation, X-rays, and neutron radiation. The penetration power of ionizing radiation is dependent on the energy it carries. The more defused the ionization it causes the more penetration it has, so localizing ionizing radiation lessens is penetration ability. Alpha radiation consists of two protons and two neutrons and has the least penetrating power, about 10 cm of air or 0.01 mm of lead. Beta radiation is fast moving electrons from the nucleus of an atom and can penetrate deeply about 1m in air or 0.1 mm in lead. Gamma radiation is released immediately after an alpha of gamma particle is released and have a very high penetrating ability about 1 km in the air and 10 cm in the lead.
Figure 1: penetrating ability of ionizing radiation through different material. [4]
X-rays are very similar to gamma but they originate from the electron shell of an atom and has less penetrating ability. Neutrons are emitted from the nucleus during nuclear reaction, since they originate from the nucleus which is under very high electromagnetic force they have high energy and high penetrability. [4]
Cosmic radiation
Cosmic radiation is atomic fragments that bombard the earth from outside of our solar system they originate during Steller activities and supernova. They travel at the speed of light and the effect the electronic equipment in our satellites [5]. About 50 percent of the cosmic radiation consists of protons, 25 percent alpha particles, around 13 percent consists of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, 1 percent electrons and only 0.1 percent gamma rays.Cosmic radiation’s energy depends on their composition; two main sources of cosmic radiation are galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar cosmic rays (SCR). Galactic cosmic rays primarily consist of 85 percent hydrogen (protons), 14 percentage helium and about 1 percentage high energy highly charged heavy ions. [6] the abundance of GCR goes down as their atomic number increases, they peak around iron in the periodic table and travel isotopically.
Figure 3: galactic cosmic rays Differential fluence vs their kinetic energy [6]
The sun is one of the main sources of cosmic radiation which releases a constant flux of low energy particle called solar wind, this solar wind largely consists of protons. The sun has solar cycles usually ranging between 11 and 8 years and each cycle consist of solar maximum and solar minimum. During solar maximum solar activities increase and large amount of radiation gets released from the sun, which is called coronal mass ejections CMEs. The CMEs last for several days and consists of protons and other heavy particles and their energies can be from several hundred MeV/amu to GeV/amu [7]. These solar flares are dangerous and can damage high orbital satellites. These particles are so energetic that they deform the earth’s magnetic field and even disrupt communications. Most of the cosmic rays do not reach the earth’s atmosphere many of the radiation are t blocked and deflected by the earth’s magnetic field as shown in the figure [1], Low altitude is shielded from the solar and cosmic rays.
Figure 4: total energy required to penetrate the earth’s magnetosphere and the layers of magnetic field around the globe [8]
The magnetic shield filters the particle with less than the energy to penetrate the earth’s atmosphere. A particle that overcomes the magnetic field enters the earth’s atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is made up of 78 percent of nitrogen and 21 percent of oxygen, so these particle interacts with nitrogen and oxygen atoms to create secondary particle [1]. The energy of these particles is greatly reduced till they reach the surface of the earth.The particles in the atmosphere trap the solar radiation temporally and then scatter same energy in all directions. Half of the scattered energy gets released back in the space. The scattered wavelength depends on the scattering particles, for example, haze and smog have water droplets and scatter large wavelength. Air has nitrogen and oxygen they scatter short wavelength [1].
Climate change effects on the atmosphere and cloud forming
In 1998 Henrik svensmark proposed the theory that GCRs and SCRs could be responsible for the global temperature. His theory stated that the solar magnetic field deflect GRCs that can seed clouds of earth and molecules of water can be ionized by the high energy cosmic say that then starts to form clouds [9]. Since these clouds play a significant role in reflecting back solar radiation, there might be a link between climate change and solar radiation. According to the proposed theory Cloud formation did not effect in the middle or higher atmosphere, but only in the lower atmosphere. High atmosphere clouds trap heat and low level clouds reflect heat. Cloud affect the radiation by their 3 dimensional geometry and the size, amount and nature of the hydrometers present in them. If less GCRs are penetrating the earth’s atmosphere, then less cloud will form and less UV radiation would reflect back to the atmosphere which can increase the earth’s temperature. For this theory to be true, there should be an increase in the solar magnetic field over the years, but the research showed that from 1965 to 2010 the solar magnetic field stayed relatively the same [10].
The second test was conducted to see if the GCR flux decreases in the long term, since they help form the lower atmosphere clouds. The data gathered from the university of national centers for environmental information showed there was no significant change since 1970 to 2005. [10]
Figure 5: left: Reconstructed cosmic radiation (solid line before 1952) and directly observed cosmic radiation (solid line after 1952) compared to global temperature (dotted line), right:Record high cosmic ray flux in 2009 and a graph depicting the annual average GCR counts per minute (blue-note the numbers decreasing on the left vertical axis since lower GCRs should mean higher temperatures) vs. annual average global surface temperature (red-right vertical axis) [10].
The third research was conducted was to look if GCRs successfully seed low atmosphere clouds. This cannot be tested directly so scientist looked at atomic bomb test data since fission reaction release large quantity of charged particles. There was no evidence that suggested that there was a significant increase in cloud formation. About 30 percent of the radiation is reflected back to space by clouds. The increase in greenhouse gases is making less clouds and increase in CO2 level and other greenhouse gases absorb solar radiation and accelerate the global warming effect. Next the effect of Carbon dioxide on the cloud formation was tested. The greenhouse can affect the cloud formation and their radiative feedback.
The next experiment was conducted with two climate models, one with cloud feedback and other without it. Both models were studied for Carbon dioxide sensitivity and Carbon dioxide induced cloud formation [11]. The Carbon dioxide induces model showed reduction of clouds in the upper troposphere and an increase in the amount of cloud around troposphere, but the increase in CO2 in the atmosphere showed decrease in lower troposphere clouds. It was due to the fact that saturated the air normally spreads horizontally. The heating due to moist convection raises in the middle and lower altitudes. This is in response to the increase in Carbon dioxide, the low moist static stability moves to the higher level, which causes an upward shift in the clouds [11]. it was found that the relationship between the radiation and cloud cover is positive feedback. The Carbon dioxide induced model showed an increase in the mean global temperature. The experiment concluded that reflected radiation is reduced due to the increase in the top layer of the clouds which absorb more heat, effectively increases the earth’s temperature. The reduction of the lower layer of cloud reduces the reflected radiation even more both effects increases the earth’s temperature.
Schemes that predict cloudiness as a function of humidity showed positive displacement at higher atmosphere. The cloud cover in in response to greenhouse gases are also showing positive feedback [11] which means that the increase in greenhouse gasses actually decrease the lower atmosphere clouds formation.
Table 1 properties of cloud cover used in the study, thin cloud occupies finite deference level and thick cloud occupies more than one contiguous level. Visible and UV indicates solar radiation and infrared indicate part of the solar spectrum [11]
Figure 6: latitude and time distribution of total amount of cloud formation (a) computed simulation and (b) actual observed distribution [11]
This same research was later repeated on more sophisticated simulation in 1999 by Wu and Moncrieff and in 2000 by Tompkins and Emanuel and showed the same results that greenhouse gases decrease cloud formation significantly. The extent of global warming effect on cloud cover and radiation feedback still need more research. So far it can be concluded that that global warming does affect the cloud formation, but to what extent and how much, still need more research and what are the long term effect of this still need a better understanding.
Conclusion
In conclusion the radiation from outside the solar system and nearby stars gets redirected and absorbed by the earth’s magnetic field and the atmosphere. The earth's atmosphere absorbs high energy radiation and converts them into secondary particle with less energy. The clouds play an important role in the reflection and absorption of the cosmic radiation. The top layer of the clouds absorbs and trap heat from solar radiation and lower level clouds reflect the heat. the temperature of the earth gets significantly affected by the formation of lower level clouds. Research suggests thatBut the amount of radiation absorbed by earth does get affected by clouds. Recent data suggest that global warming might be responsible for the positive feedback of cloud formation in the lower atmosphere. That means that less radiation reflective clouds are formed and less radiation gets reflected back to the space. More study and research must be conducted on this phenomenon. increase amount of solar radiation absorbed by the earth can have significant adverse effects on the biological organism, which include humans, animals and food source. Cosmic radiation played a huge factor in the on the evolution of this planet and living organisms but it is yet to be determined the how global warming and increase solar radiation will affect the plant in the future.
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