1. How do vertebrate circulatory systems differ in structure and efficiency? Use

Question

1. How do vertebrate circulatory systems differ in structure and efficiency? Use the amphibian, fish, and mammal system for your comparison.

2. Describe the structure of the human heart; explain the movement of blood flow through the heart, lungs, and body. Your answer should be specific.

3. How does the direction of blood flow, blood pressure, total area, and flow velocity differ between arteries, capillaries, and veins? How is the variation adaptive?

4. Explain how innate immunity differs from adaptive immunity.

Explanation / Answer

1. How do vertebrate circulatory systems differ in structure and efficiency? Use the amphibian, fish, and mammal system for your comparison

Answer:

The vertebrates such as fishes and mammals have high efficient closed- circulatory system compared to invertebrates, in which there is no cardiovascular system or heart. The vertebrate circulatory system can efficiently supply blood to various organs & tissues via "both pulmonary" and systemic" circulation, vena cava to "multicellular tissues" to enable oxygenated respiration. They have big vena cava, arteries, areterioles, venules, small blood capillaries to supply blood with oxygen for inner "minute cells" including muscle, liver etc. The blood vessels have high efficient endothelium. Heart of these vertebrates have four chambers (mammals, amphibians), 2-chambered (in fishes) with auricles & ventricles.

The aorta further divided into arteries and arterioles, capillary beds to enable microcirculation to the cells and deliver oxygen for cellular reparation. Thoracic aorta runs towards the heart and diaphragm and continues to pump the blood to all visceral organs through abdominal aorta finally bifurcates. However, the structure of aorta mainly regulates efficient blood to organs and the structural components described as follows.

Arteries are thicker than veins and arteries do not contain valves because blood is pumped into the arteries from heart with higher force but valves are present in veins. Both arteries and veins contain endothelial layers. Normally, plasma proteins exert differential osmotic pressure on the walls of the blood vessels such as arteries, arterioles, capillaries and veins. Majority of plasma contains water and exerts hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure within the blood capillaries. Blood vessels such as capillaries, arteries and arterioles contain structural components such as smooth muscle layers, endothelium internally. Tunica media, tunica externa and tunica interna are associated with lamina propria and basement membrane together to form wall of the blood vessels structure. This smooth muscle layers and endothelial cells mainly contain adrenoceptors and cholinergic receptors enable to maintain persistent blood pressure. Adrenaline and acetylcholine acts on these receptors to maintain constant blood pressure with homeostasis via signal transduction finally produce vasoconstriction and vasodilation respectively.

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