What are the three major energy reserves in humans and what is the relative amou

Question

What are the three major energy reserves in humans and what is the relative amount of energy stored in each of these reserves? Where are the major storage sites for each of these fuel reserves? How does the use of protein as an emergency “energy reserve” differ from the use of the other energy reserves? Given that the carbohydrate reserve in humans is so small, why is it so important? What characteristics of lipids make them so efficient in their role as energy stores?

Essential nutrients are necessary for human survival. Give examples of at least three different types of essential nutrients and describe their role in human metabolism.

What are the usual features of catabolic pathways? What types of compounds do humans use as energy sources in catabolic pathways? What is the ultimate source of oxidizing power for catabolic pathways? What cofactor serves as the immediate source of oxidizing power in catabolic pathways? What are the starting materials and end products of catabolic pathways? What role do oxidation-reduction reactions play in catabolic pathways?

What are the usual features of anabolic pathways? What are the starting materials for anabolic pathways, and what are the end products? What is the major source of energy for anabolic pathways? What is the major source of reducing power in these pathways? What role do oxidation-reduction reactions play in anabolic pathways?

Explanation / Answer

1. Any reduced carbon stored in compounds such as fatty acids in triacylglycerols of adipose tissue, glucose in glycogen, and amino acids in protein releases energy are major energy reserve in body. Protein and carbohydrates both contain 4 calories per gram, while fat provides 9 calories per gram.

2. fatty acids are stored in adipose tissues, glycogen stored in liver and skeletal muscles, The human body can break down its muscle tissue to get certain amino acids, or the building blocks of protein, but it has no specialized cells to store proteinefficiently, as it does fat and carbohydrate. For this reason, eating protein regularly is of paramount importance.

3. In case of inadequate carbohydrate supply body uses amino acids from protein to make glucose through the process of gluconeogenesis.

4. Glucose is essential to provide enerygy to brain and other tissues in body. That is why carbohydrate reserves are very important

5. lipids are effiecient energy energy store because fatty acids are condensed chains of individual energy substrates that yield acetyl-CoA. The longer the hydrocarbon chain, the more acetyl-CoA can be generated via a process called beta oxidation. Glucose is a far less condensed form of energy (too much H20) -metabolism of each monosaccharide molecule yields only 2 acetyl CoA.

6. three essential nutrients are water, vitamins and minerals

Water helps to maintain homeostasis in the body and transports nutrients to cells. Water also assists in removing waste products from the body.

Minerals: Sodium helps to maintain fluid volume outside of the cells and helps cells to function normally. Potassium maintains fluid volume inside and outside of cells and prevents the excess rise of blood pressure with increased sodium intake. Calcium helps to maintain and build strong bones and teeth.

Vitamins: Vitamin C is necessary for the synthesis of collagen, which provides structure to blood vessels, bone and ligaments. Rich sources include citrus fruits, strawberries and peppers. Folate, found in foods, helps to prevent birth defects. Pregnant women or women who plan to become pregnant should speak with their physician about taking a folic acid supplement, the synthetic form of folate, in addition to their diet. Vitamin D helps to maintain calcium homeostasis. It can be found in food sources or synthesized by the sun.

7 Catabolic reactions:

Catabolic reactions (also called “catabolism”) break down larger, more complex molecules into smaller molecules and release energy in the process. The smaller end products of a catabolic reaction may be released as waste or they may be fed into other reactions. The energy that is released by catabolic reactions can be captured and used in many ways. Some of the energy is released as heat and increases the temperature of the cell. Sometimes the energy is stored in the chemical bonds of another molecule. And sometimes it can be used to do work, such as movement of cellular machinery to power the active transport of materials across cell membranes. Catabolic reactions are central to biological processes such as cellular respiration and the digestion of food molecules.

Cellular respiration is catabolic because it takes glucose (a complex molecule with 6 carbons) and reduces it to carbon dioxide (each with only one carbon) and water (oxygen joined to two hydrogens). Some of the energy released by this process is captured in ATP, which can be stored for later use.

Digestion of protein is also a catabolic reaction. It takes a very large protein molecule and breaks it down into several smaller polypeptides, then dismantles the polypeptides to yield individual amino acids.

8 9. 10. 11. 12. Energy-storing molecules, such as lipids, are also broken down through similar catabolic reactions to release energy and make ATP. Catabolic Pathways:-Use reduced organic compounds – lipids, carbohydrates and amino acids as startingmaterials.-Yield products such as pyruvate and acetyl CoA and carbon dioxide that are moreoxidized than the starting materials.-Uses molecular oxygen as the oxidizing agent-Result in the net production of energy-Much of that energy is released as heat-Some of the energy is used directly toproduce ATP-Some of the energy is used to synthesize NADH which then is converted to ATP bymeans of oxidative phosphorylation-Some of the energy is used to synthesize NADPH which then is used as a reduction agent in anabolic reactions.-Catabolic pathways release energy by oxidizing reduced organic compounds

13. Anabolic reactions (also referred to as "anabolism") use energy to build more complex molecules from relatively simple raw materials. “Anabolic” and “catabolic” sound similar but are opposites. To remember the difference, it may help to think about how “anabolic steroids” promote the buildup of muscle mass. All of the complex molecules of life — carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids — are generated by anabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions are central to processes like photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and DNA replication..

14. 15. 16. 17 Anabolic Pathways:-Synthesize complex end products such as lipids, carbohydrates and proteins from simple starting materials.-Yield products which are more reduced than the starting materials-Use NADPH as the reducing agent-Use ATP as a source of energy to drive thermodynamically unfavorable reactions-Result in the net release of energy as heat

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