3. a. Give 5 symptoms of kidney failure. b. On what principle is hemodialysis ba
ID: 11996 • Letter: 3
Question
3. a. Give 5 symptoms of kidney failure.b. On what principle is hemodialysis based?
c. In what 3 ways does the body regulate pH?
d. Write a short note on the role of Lactated Ringer’s Solution in ICU fluid therapy.
e.Write brief notes on:
a. Colostrum
b. Zygote formation including haploidy vs diploidy
c. Gene vs allele
d. Sex linkage
e. Human Genome Project
2. List 4 factors that can cause genetic damage in a living system. Explain the type of genetic damage induced by each of your examples. A substance that causes genetic change is known as a ----------------------.
Explanation / Answer
A) Symptom 1: Changes in Urination Symptom 2: Swelling Failing kidneys don't remove extra fluid, which builds up in your body causing swelling in the legs, ankles, feet, face, and/or hands. Symptom 3: Skin Rash/Itching Kidneys remove wastes from the bloodstream. When the kidneys fail, the buildup of wastes in your blood can cause severe itching Symptom 4: Nausea and Vomiting A severe buildup of wastes in the blood (uremia) can also cause nausea and vomiting. Loss of appetite can lead to weight loss. Symptom 5: Dizziness and Trouble Concentrating Anemia related to kidney failure means that your brain is not getting enough oxygen. This can lead to memory problems, trouble with concentration, and dizziness. Symptom 6: Shortness of Breath Trouble catching your breath can be related to the kidneys in two ways. First, extra fluid in the body can build up in the lungs. And second, anemia (a shortage of oxygen-carrying red blood cells) can leave your body oxygen-starved and short of breath. there are many other symptoms also. B) The principle of hemodialysis is the same as other methods of dialysis; it involves diffusion of solutes across a semipermeable membrane. Hemodialysis utilizes counter current flow, where the dialysate is flowing in the opposite direction to blood flow in the extracorporeal circuit. Counter-current flow maintains the concentration gradient across the membrane at a maximum and increases the efficiency of the dialysis. Fluid removal (ultrafiltration) is achieved by altering the hydrostatic pressure of the dialysate compartment, causing free water and some dissolved solutes to move across the membrane along a created pressure gradient. The dialysis solution that is used may be a sterilized solution of mineral ions or comply with British Pharmacopoeia. Urea and other waste products, potassium, and phosphate diffuse into the dialysis solution. However, concentrations of sodium and chloride are similar to those of normal plasma to prevent loss. Sodium bicarbonate is added in a higher concentration than plasma to correct blood acidity. A small amount of glucose is also commonly used. Note that this is a different process to the related technique of hemofiltration. C) Urinary and Lymphatic System Healthy urinary and lymphatic system functions enable the body to excrete toxins and wastes. The buildup of toxins promotes pH imbalance, which brings serious health risks. Although your body has a built-in cleansing system, taking supplements that help cleanse your body helps it maintain regular bowel movements and healthy liver and kidney functions, which support effective detoxification processes. This ultimately helps balance your pH level. Food and Food Supplements Food enzyme production is essential to digestion. Getting proper nutrition is crucial to maintaining normal pH levels. In this light, enzymes play essential roles on the assimilation of food nutrients that will ensure pH balance. Your body controls its alkaline levels with green food. In today's foodstuffs, its nutrient value is compromised with yield. If you are taking chances on getting all your alkaline agents solely from the food you eat, you do not stand a chance in preventing diseases due to heightened body acid levels. With that, food supplements are becoming an essential part of a daily diet. secreting acids if base gets more and if acid get more than calcium from bone and some enzymes reduce it. blood is also a buffer solution . it also helps to maintain Ph of the body. D) The most commonly used crystalloid fluid is normal saline, a solution of sodium chloride at 0.9% concentration, which is close to the concentration in the blood (isotonic). Ringer's lactate or Ringer's acetate is another isotonic solution often used for large-volume fluid replacement. Buffer solutions Buffer solutions are used to correct acidosis or alkalosis. Lactated Ringer's solution also has some buffering effect. A solution more specifically used for buffering purpose is intravenous sodium bicarbonate. ntravenous therapy or IV therapy is the giving of substances directly into a vein. The word intravenous simply means "within a vein". Therapies administered intravenously are often called specialty pharmaceuticals. It is commonly referred to as a drip because many systems of administration employ a drip chamber, which prevents air entering the blood stream (air embolism) and allows an estimate of flow rate. Intravenous therapy may be used to correct electrolyte imbalances, to deliver medications, for blood transfusion or as fluid replacement to correct, for example, dehydration. Compared with other routes of administration, the intravenous route is the fastest way to deliver fluids and medications throughout the body. Some medications, as well as blood transfusions and lethal injections, can only be given intravenously. E)ewborns have very small digestive systems, and colostrum delivers its nutrients in a very concentrated low-volume form. It has a mild laxative effect, encouraging the passing of the baby's first stool, which is called meconium. This clears excess bilirubin, a waste product of dead red blood cells, which is produced in large quantities at birth due to blood volume reduction, from the infant's body and helps prevent jaundice. Colostrum is known to contain antibodies called immunoglobulins such as IgA, IgG, and IgM in mammals. IgA is absorbed through the intestinal epithelium, travels through the blood, and is secreted onto other Type 1 mucosal surfaces. These are the major components of the adaptive immune system. Other immune components of colostrum include the major components of the innate immune system, such as lactoferrin,[4] lysozyme,[5] lactoperoxidase,[6] complement,[7] and proline-rich polypeptides (PRP).[8] A number of cytokines (small messenger peptides that control the functioning of the immune system) are found in colostrum as well,[9] including interleukins,[9] tumor necrosis factor,[10] chemokines,[11] and others. Colostrum also contains a number of growth factors, such as insulin-like growth factors I,[12] and II,[13] transforming growth factors alpha,[14] beta 1 and beta 2,[15][16] fibroblast growth factors,[17] epidermal growth factor,[18] granulocyte-macrophage-stimulating growth factor,[19] platelet-derived growth factor,[19] vascular endothelial growth factor,[20] and colony-stimulating factor-1.[21] Colostrum is very rich in proteins, vitamin A, and sodium chloride, but contains lower amounts of carbohydrates, lipids, and potassium than normal milk. The most pertinent bioactive components in colostrum are growth factors and antimicrobial factors. The antibodies in colostrum provide passive immunity, while growth factors stimulate the development of the gut. They are passed to the neonate and provide the first protection against pathogens. Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction, consisting of the constant cyclical process of meiosis and fertilization. This takes place alongside normal mitotic cell division. In multicellular organisms, there is an intermediary step between the diploid and haploid transition where the organism grows. The organism will then produce the germ cells that continue in the life cycle. The rest of the cells, called somatic cells, function within the organism and will die with it. Cycling meiosis and fertilization events produces a series of transitions back and forth between alternating haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (gametic or diploid life cycle), during the haploid state (zygotic or haploid life cycle), or both (sporic or haplodiploid life cycle, in which there are two distinct organism phases, one during the haploid state and the other during the diploid state). In this sense there are three types of life cycles that utilize sexual reproduction, differentiated by the location of the organisms phase(s).[citation needed] In the gametic life cycle, of which humans are a part, the species is diploid, grown from a diploid cell called the zygote. The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes (the spermatozoa for males and ova for females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism. Mitosis is a related process to meiosis that creates two cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. The general principle is that mitosis creates somatic cells and meiosis creates germ cells.[citation needed] In the zygotic life cycle the species is haploid instead, spawned by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete. Two organisms of opposing gender contribute their haploid germ cells to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism. Many fungi and many protozoa are members of the zygotic life cycle.[citation needed] Finally, in the sporic life cycle, the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations. The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce spores. The spores proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organism's germ cells then combine with another haploid organism's cells, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to become the diploid organism again. The sporic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the gametic and zygotic life cycles.[citation needed] Gene and allele are basically what make us who we are. They are genetic sequences of our DNA, although gene is a more general term than allele. To make an example: humans have facial hair. It can be thick or patchy. The first statement is a gene, the latter an allele. Gene Genes are the basic instructions for all life forms. All living things are dependent on genes for survival, as genes specify all proteins and functional RNA chains. Genes also contain the information and instructions to build and maintain our cells, and pass them on to our offspring. Genes not only tell us what we’ll look like, but also determine what kind of diseases we will be more vulnerable to. Allele Alleles are variants of a gene. When someone says this person got good genes, they are referring to an allele. They occur in pairs and produce opposite phenotypes that, by nature, are contrasting. If an allele has homogenous genes, then they are called homozygous. If they are different, they are called heterozygous. And heterozygous alleles will have a dominant and a recessive allele. Difference between Gene and Allele Genes are the parts of the DNA that determine what traits a person will have, while alleles are the different sequences of that DNA and they determine what kind of characteristics those traits will have. Alleles also occur in pairs, having a recessive and a dominant part. Genes don’t have any pairing at all. Also alleles can be either homozygous or heterozygous while genes don’t have such differentiation. Basically, an allele is just different types of the same gene. If there is a gene for hair color, one allele will be for black hair, the other for brown hair. Alleles and genes are equally important in the development of all forms of life, and their differences can be seen in every living thing. The best example of how they manifest is you. In brief: - Genes are the basic instructions for all life forms and are inherited from our parents. They contain information and instruction not only for our physical attributes, but also as to what kind of diseases we may be vulnerable to. - Alleles are the different variants of a gene and they occur in pairs. They are further classified as dominant or recessive and homozygous or heterozygous. They determine what traits we inherit. The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international scientific research project with a primary goal of determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA, and of identifying and mapping the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional standpoint.[1] The project began in 1989[2] and was initially headed by Ari Patrinos, head of the Office of Biological and Environmental Research in the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science. Francis Collins directed the National Institutes of Health National Human Genome Research Institute efforts. A working draft of the genome was announced in 2000 and a complete one in 2003, with further, more detailed analysis still being published. A parallel project was conducted outside of government by the Celera Corporation, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in universities and research centers from the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, China and Pakistan[3]. The mapping of human genes is an important step in the development of medicines and other aspects of health care. While the objective of the Human Genome Project is to understand the genetic makeup of the human species, the project has also focused on several other nonhuman organisms such as E. coli, the fruit fly, and the laboratory mouse. It remains one of the largest single investigative projects in modern science. The Human Genome Project originally aimed to map the nucleotides contained in a human haploid reference genome (more than three billion). Several groups have announced efforts to extend this to diploid human genomes including the International HapMap Project, Applied Biosystems, Perlegen, Illumina, J. Craig Venter Institute, Personal Genome Project, and Roche-454. The "genome" of any given individual (except for identical twins and cloned organisms) is unique; mapping "the human genome" involves sequencing multiple variations of each gene.[4] The project did not study the entire DNA found in human cells; some heterochromatic areas (about 8% of the total genome) remain un-sequenced. Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele related to the chromosomal sex of the individual. This mode of inheritance is in contrast to the inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes, where both sexes have the same probability of inheritance. Since humans have many more genes on the X than the Y, there are many more X-linked traits than Y-linked traits. In mammals, the female is the homozygous sex, with two X chromosomes (XX), while the male is heterozygous, with one X and one Y chromosome (XY). Genes on the X or Y chromosome are called sex linked genes. In birds, the opposite is true: the male is the homozygous sex, having two Z chromosomes (ZZ), and the female (hen) is heterozygous, having one Z and one W chromosome (ZW). What is a genetic disease? A genetic disease is any disease that is caused by an abnormality in an individual's genome. The abnormality can range from minuscule to major -- from a discrete mutation in a single base in the DNA of a single gene to a gross chromosome abnormality involving the addition or subtraction of an entire chromosome or set of chromosomes. Some genetic disorders are inherited from the parents, while other genetic diseases are caused by acquired changes or mutations in a preexisting gene or group of genes. Mutations occur either randomly or due to some environmental exposure. What are the different types of inheritance? There are a number of different types of genetic inheritance, including the following four modes: Single gene inheritance Single gene inheritance, also called Mendelian or monogenetic inheritance. This type of inheritance is caused by changes or mutations that occur in the DNA sequence of a single gene. There are more than 6,000 known single-gene disorders, which occur in about 1 out of every 200 births. These disorders are known as monogenetic disorders (disorders of a single age). Some examples of monogenetic disorders include: cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Marfan syndrome, Huntington's disease, and hemochromatosis. Single-gene disorders are inherited in recognizable patterns: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked.
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